Septicemia Information and Courses from MediaLab, Inc.

Podschun R. Ullmann U.: Klebsiella spp. as nosocomial pathogens: epidemiology, taxonomy, typing methods, and pathogenicity factors Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 11(4):589-603, 1998 Bacteria belonging to the genus Klebsiella frequently cause human nosocomial infections. In particular, the medically most important Klebsiella species, Klebsiella pneumoniae, accounts for a significant proportion of hospital-acquired urinary tract infections, pneumonia, septicemias, and soft tissue infections. The principal pathogenic reservoirs for transmission of Klebsiella are the gastrointestinal tract and the hands of hospital personnel. Because of their ability to spread rapidly in the hospital environment, these bacteria tend to cause nosocomial outbreaks. Hospital outbreaks of multidrug-resistant Klebsiella species, especially those in neonatal wards, are often caused by new types of strains, the so-called extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers The incidence of ESBL-producing strains among clinical Klebsiella isolates has been steadily increasing over the past years. The resulting limitations on the therapeutic options demand new measures for the management of Klebsiella hospital infections. While the different typing methods are useful epidemiological tools for infection control, recent findings about Klebsiella virulence factors have provided new insights into the pathogenic strategies of these bacteria. Klebsiella pathogenicity factors such as capsules or lipopolysaccharides are presently considered to be promising candidates for vaccination efforts that may serve as immunological infection control measures.

The nitrites portion of the chemical reagent strip provides a rapid screening test for the presence of gram-negative bacteria that are often responsible for urinary tract infections. Urine cultures are still needed to confirm the diagnosis and monitor any urinary tract or kidney infection. Diagnosis and treatment of cystitis (bladder infection) is important because, if left untreated, it may result in kidney damage, impairment of renal function, hypertension and/or septicemia.

The nitrites portion of the reagent strip provides a rapid screening test for the presence of gram-negative bacteria that are often responsible for urinary tract infections. Although urine cultures are still needed to confirm the diagnosis and monitor any urinary tract or kidney infection, the need for a culture may not be obvious because in some cases of early bladder infection, the symptoms may be vague or the patient may be asymptomatic. Diagnosis and treatment of cystitis (bladder infection) is important because if left untreated it may result in kidney damage, impairment of renal function, hypertension and/or septicemia.

Many species in the genus Enterococcus possess intrinsic resistance to commonly used antibiotics. Intrinsic resistance represents naturally encoded chromosomal characteristics that are present in most Enterococci. These resistance mechanisms affect primarily the aminoglycosides and beta lactam antibiotics, and create therapeutic challenges for the treatment of serious infections such as endocarditis or septicemia. In addition to intrinsic resistance, Enterococci can acquire genetic determinants that confer resistance to other antibiotics. The emergence and increasing frequency of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) has presented both therapeutic and infection control challenges.

During a blood collection, bacteria that is present on the skin surface may adhere to the outside of the needle as it enters into the vein. This can allow bacteria to infect the puncture site. A serious infection of the blood (septicemia) or of the tissue (cellulitis) may result. To avoid an infection, it is imperative that the phlebotomist uses a technique that thoroughly cleanses the skin at the site prior to venipuncture.Once the phlebotomist locates a suitable vein for venipuncture, the site of the vein that will be punctured is cleaned with a pre-packaged wipe saturated with 70% isopropyl alcohol.The site is cleansed using a "target" motion beginning at the center of the site and moving outward in concentric circles applying enough pressure to move surface bacteria away from the puncture point. (This is demonstrated in the image on the right). It is not recommended to use a scrubbing back and forth motion to clean the site since you may drag bacteria from a dirty area back into the clean area. Allow alcohol to air dry for effective disinfection of the site. Never use non-sterile gauze to wipe dry the alcohol as this will contaminate the site.During the remainder of the procedure, the site must NOT be touched by anything that has not been cleaned in an identical manner. The phlebotomist should avoid retouching the site after cleaning. If it is absolutely necessary to re-palpate, the phlebotomist MUST clean the gloved finger in a manner identical to the above procedure. Make certain that no other piece of equipment touches the site. This includes ends of the tourniquet and gauze. If you suspect that your needle has touched the site before entry, dispose of the needle, re-clean the site and repeat the procedure using a new needle. If a patient complains that there is redness or pain at the puncture site, even hours or days after the procedure, immediately refer the patient to his/her physician for evaluation.

Vacuoles are areas of the cytoplasm which do not stain with Wright's stain and appear as holes in the cytoplasm. Their composition may vary; some will contain remnants of bacterial digestion, autodigestion in an aging cell, while others may contain fat. It is not possible to differentiate the various types of vacuoles on Wright stained smears using light microscopy. Vacuoles may be seen occasionally in an aging granulocyte (degenerative vacuolation), but are seen more frequently and are significant in cases of bacterial infection and septicemia.