Pregnancy Information and Courses from MediaLab, Inc.

Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins secreted by B-lymphocytes after stimulation by a specific antigen. The antibody formed binds to the specific antigen in order to mark the antigen for destruction.The type of antigenic exposure occurring in the body determines if the antibody is a naturally occurring or immune antibody.Naturally occurring antibodies can be formed after exposure to environmental agents that are similar to red cell antigens, such as bacteria, dust or pollen. Sensitization through previous transfusions, pregnancy or injections is not necessary. These antibodies are usually IgM and react best at room temperature or lower. Most of these antibodies are not clinically significant with the exception of ABO antibodies. Examples of naturally occurring antibodies include anti-A, anti-B, anti-Cw, anti-M, and antibodies in the Lewis and P system.

Individuals with diabetes mellitus may excrete small amounts of protein in the urine which may signal the beginning of reduced glomerular filtration. Stabilizing the blood glucose level at this time may delay progression of diabetic nephropathy. Women in the last month of pregnancy may develop proteinuria as the first sign of impending eclampsia. Eclampsia is the gravest form of toxemia of pregnancy. The presence of protein in this situation must be evaluated by the physician in conjunction with other clinical symptoms.Benign transient proteinuria may be the result of: exposure to cold, strenuous exercise, dehydration, and/or high fever. Benign transient proteinuria may also occur during the acute phase of a severe illness.

The presence of significant amounts of glucose in the urine is called glycosuria (or glucosuria). The amount of glucose present in urine is dependent upon the blood glucose level, the rate of glomerular filtration, and the degree of tubular reabsorption of the sugar. Usually glucose will not be present in the urine until the blood level exceeds 160-189 mg/dl, which is the normal renal threshold for glucose. The main reason for glycosuria is an elevated blood glucose level, called hyperglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is the most common disease that causes hyperglycemia. However, stress, obesity, brain injury, myocardial infarction, hyperthyroidism, pregnancy, and a lowered renal threshold due to kidney damage can all cause glycosuria.

The prototype history for this organism is either a still birth or a neonate with death ensuing within 2 or 3 days post-partem due to high fever, sepsis, and respiratory distress. The mother usually experienced a flu-like illness late in the third trimester of pregnancy, characterized by low-grade fever, myalgias, malaise and backache. In this case, biopsy material of brain tissue obtained at autopsy was submitted to the pathology laboratory for tissue diagnosis and fluid from the pia-arachnoid was sent to the microbiology laboratory for culture.

A platelet function assay (PFA) is a screening test for the evaluation of platelets/primary hemostasis. Common clinical applications include the following: Preoperative evaluation of platelet function Determining the presence of drug-induced platelet dysfunction Determining platelet functionality in high-risk pregnancy Evaluation of patients with suspected inherited or acquired platelet disorders such as von Willebrand disease Evaluation of a bleeding patientA PFA instrument is able to differentiate between drug-induced platelet defects and other platelet defects. PFA tests are superior to the bleeding time test. The bleeding time is often not reproducible and, in spite of attempts at standardization, remains prone to variations in test results between persons performing the test. It is also relatively insensitive to platelet function. The bleeding time cannot be used to identify patients who may have recently ingested aspirin or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or patients who may have a platelet defect attributable to these drugs. The bleeding time is used to assess platelet function, but may be affected by platelet quantity. NOTE: Aspirin, and some other drugs, may falsely prolong bleeding times. Patients must be asked about aspirin use, and be aspirin free for 7-10 days prior to testing, for valid results.

Storage forms normally comprise approximately 27% of total body iron. Stored iron provides a source of iron when physiologic demand is high, such as in blood loss, pregnancy, and periods of rapid growth. Storage compounds include ferritin and hemosiderin. Ferritin is a protein-bound, water-soluble, mobilizable storage compound and is the major source of stored iron. Hemosiderin is a water-insoluble form that is less readily available for use. When the amount of total body iron is relatively low, storage iron consists predominately of ferritin. When iron stores are increased, hemosiderin predominates. Unlike ferritin, hemosiderin stains with the Prussian blue stain (Perls reaction) and may be observed in tissues.

The amount of time needed for iron to increase to levels causing organ damage is variable and may be partially dependent on gender, dietary or other environmental factors, and unknown genetic factors. Blood loss through menstruation and pregnancy are thought to delay the onset of iron overload, and therefore symptoms of HH, in women. Similarly, regular blood donation may confer some degree of protection. The loss of hemoglobin within intact erythrocytes reduces the amount of iron available for recycling.As levels of storage iron increase, clinical features of iron overload, including hepatic dysfunction or failure, diabetes, hypogonadism, arthritis, cardiomyopathy, hyperpigmentation, and fatigue, may become evident.Symptomatic patients typically present in middle age between the ages of 30 and 60, although this is quite variable. Persons as young as 20 may show clinical signs and symptoms of HH.(6) In the US, males are more than twice as likely as females to be diagnosed with HH, and the majority of cases are found in Caucasians.

In most other blood group systems, antibody may be formed after an individual has been immunized by an antigen that is missing from his or her red cells; perhaps as the result of pregnancy or transfusion. In the ABO system, when the antigen is missing from the cells, the corresponding antibody will predictably be found in the serum and must be found before determining the ABO type. There are few exceptions to this rule and any exception must be explained before the true ABO blood type can be determined.

Laboratory specimens that are unlikely to cause disease and do not meet the criteria for category A or B substances are not subject to Division 6.2 regulations. Specimens for which the hazardous materials regulation (HMR) does not apply include human or animal samples (including, but not limited to, secreta, excreta, blood and its components, tissue and tissue fluids, and body parts) being transported for routine testing not related to the diagnosis of an infectious disease. This includes specimens that are being sent for: drug or alcohol testing cholesterol testing blood glucose level testing prostate specific antibody (PSA) testing testing to monitor kidney or liver function pregnancy testing tests for diagnosis of non-infectious diseases such as cancer biopsies

Glucose tolerance test is used to help diagnose diabetes mellitus, or gestational diabetes (diabetes occurring during pregnancy).Patients are given a standard oral dose of glucose, after which their blood is collected at standard time intervals. Blood samples are then checked for glucose levels. Abnormal glucose levels may indicate diabetes mellitus, or gestational diabetes mellitus.

This course will give you an overview of the methods involved in performing a semen analysis. Semen analysis may be performed for one of several reasons. One of these is evaluation to assess male fertility. Infertility is a problem for approximately 1 in 7 couples who attempt a first pregnancy. In almost half of these cases (~50%) the cause of infertility can be traced, at least in part, to an abnormality in the male. Examination of sperm is the first step in evaluating male infertility. Semen analysis can also be used to: confirm the absence of sperm in post vasectomy patients; confirm the presence of sperm after vasectomy reversal; and to determine the presence of sperm for certain legal purposes, such as rape.

Similar to evaluating inconsistencies, one of the post-analytic tools for confirming that the serological data fit the solution is to consider the "big picture." For example: Is there a likely red cell stimulus (prior transfusion or pregnancy) for IgG antibodies such as anti-Jka? Can different reaction strengths with panel cells be explained by the identified antibody (e.g., dosage) or by the presence of more than one antibody? Is the antibody unusual for a patient of a particular race? For example, anti-Dib is more likely to occur in Native Americans than in Caucasians.