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We are all aware of the clinical laboratory's role in assessing overall health and we are also aware that measuring a patient's serum lipids will provide some insight into their cardiovascular health. The traditional measurements of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides are the 'classic' cardiovascular risk markers.Laboratorians, and even the general public are now well-aware that LDL-C ('bad' cholesterol) concentrations should be low while HDL-C ('good' cholesterol) concentrations should be high. Triglycerides should be kept in check as well. Optimal levels are shown in the table below. So what is the risk if these values are not within optimal ranges?Cardiovascular risk can be simply defined as increasing the odds of having a pathology which affects blood flow and/or the heart. The most common cardiovascular pathology is atherosclerosis. Other cardiovascular pathologies whose odds increase as serum lipids and other cardiovascular markers become suboptimal are myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, congestive heart disease and coronary artery disease. Other diseases such as diabetes and the metabolic syndrome are also strongly associated with the classic cardiovascular risk markers LDL-C, HDL-C and triglycerides.

Atherosclerosis. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services National Institutes of Health. Available at http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Atherosclerosis/Atherosclerosis_WhatIs.htmlAccessed June 23, 2009.Daniels LB, Barrett-Connor E, Sarno M, Laughlin GA,Bettencourt R, Wolfert RL. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2) independently predicts incident coronary heart disease (CHD) in an apparently healthy older population: The Rancho Bernardo study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:913-919.Executive Summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001; 285:2486-2497. Frostegard, J, Wu R, Lemne C, Thulin T, Witztum JL and de Faire U. Circulating oxidized low-density lipoprotein is increased in hypertension, Clin Sci 2003; 105, 615.Garza CA, Montoir VM, McConnell JP, et al. Association between lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82(2):159-165.Interpretive Handbook, (MC0440rev0407) Mayo Clinic, Rochester MN;2007. Maksimowicz-McKinnon K, Bhatt DL, Calabrese LH: Recent advances in vascular inflammation: C-reactive protein and other inflammatory biomarkers. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2004;16:18-24.Mora S, Szklo M, Otvos JD, et al. LDL particle subclasses, LDL particle size, and carotid atherosclerosis in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2007;192:211-217.NACB Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines. Emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular disease and stroke. National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines. 2006.PLACtest animation, diaDexus. http://www.plactest.com/laboratorians/action.php Accessed June 23, 2009.Rifai N, Warnick GR. Lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and other cardiovascular risk factors. In: Burtis CA, Ashwood ER. Bruns DE. Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics. 4th ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders: 2006; chap. 26.Ridker PM, Rifai N, Rose L, et al. Comparison of C-reactive protein and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the prediction of first cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1557-1565.Sniderman AD. Differential response of cholesterol and particle measures of atherogenic lipoproteins to LDL-lowering therapy: Implications for clinical practice. J Clin Lipidol 2008;2:36-42.Tsimikas, S, Brilakis ES, Miller ER, et al. Oxidized phospholipids, Lp(a) lipoprotein, and coronary artery disease, N Engl J Med: 2005;353:46.Tsimikas S, Bergmark C, Beyer RW, et al. Temporal increases in plasma markers of oxidized low-density lipoprotein strongly reflect the presence of acute coronary syndromes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 360.Tsimikas, S, Lau HK, Han KR, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention results in acute increases in oxidized phospholipids and lipoprotein(a): Short-term and long-term immunologic responses to oxidized low-density lipoprotein. Circulation. 2004;109, 3164.Tsimikas S, Witztum JL, Miller ER, Sasiela WJ, et al. High-dose atorvastatin reduces total plasma levels of oxidized phospholipids and immune complexes present on apolipoprotein B-100 in patients with acute coronary syndromes in the MIRACL trial, Circulation: 2004;110, 1406. Walldius G, Jungner I, Holme I, et al. High apolipoprotein B, low apolipoprotein A-I, and improvement in the prediction of fatal myocardial infarction (AMORIS study): a prospective study. Lancet. 2001;358:2026-2033.Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937-952.

To aid in the diagnosis of disease or identification of infectious agents, clinical laboratorians use a variety of methodologies to assist them. Knowing what to look for, or the right question to ask, is vital to obtaining the correct answer. Many diseases and agents have unique causes. The cause of the condition then becomes the "target" to be identified and perhaps even quantified. For example: If Patient A is suspected of having disease X, and disease X requires treatment, it is necessary to prove that disease X exists within patient A. We must know something about what causes disease X; is disease X an antigen, a bacteria, a viral particle, a missequenced piece of DNA?Once the target of interest (in this case Disease X) has been identified, the clinical laboratorian can choose the methodology most appropriate to answering the question, "Does disease X exist within Patient A?"

Quality control procedures are performed in a clinical laboratory to ensure that patients' results are reliable. Reliability refers both to accuracy (how close a test is, on average, to patients' true results) and precision (the consistency of tests performed at different times).

For the most part, subgroups are merely of academic interest, but occasionally they present clinical problems. The antigen may be so weak that it is not detected and the red cells are mistyped as group O. This is especially dangerous if the cells are those of a donor. Problems may arise because the serum of an A2 or A2B, A3 or Ax individual might contain anti-A1. This antibody may be detected in serum typing and cause confusion. You would not expect to find a person with A antigen on his red cells and anti-A in his serum. Anti-A1 is produced by about 1-2% of group A2 persons and about 25% of group A2B persons. Subgroups may be determined by reactions with antisera as seen in the table on the next page.