Fibrinogen Information and Courses from MediaLab, Inc.

Clot formation is always abnormal and is often due to increased levels of protein, especially fibrinogen. When the protein level is 1000 mg/dL, clot formation will most likely occur but clots may also form at lower levels of protein. Some clots may be very fine and appear as a thin membrane or "scum" on the surface of the CSF specimen. This type of clot is referred to as a pellicle. Pellicles are composed of fibrinogen and white blood cells. The type of clot formed may give some specific information about the disease state. Some examples are provided in the following table: Example of ConditionType of Clotbacterial meningitispellicle forms in a short time; large clot formation followsTB meningitisweb-like clot (pellicle) after 12-24 hours (enhanced by refrigeration)paresis (type of neurosyphilis)incomplete clotblockage of CSF circulationcompletely clotted due to protein

Cunningham MW.: Pathogenesis of group A streptococcal infections. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 13):470-511, 2000Group A streptococci are model extracellular gram-positive pathogens responsible for pharyngitis, impetigo, rheumatic fever, and acute glomerulonephritis. A resurgence of invasive streptococcal diseases and rheumatic fever has appeared in outbreaks over the past 10 years, with a predominant M1 serotype as well as others identified with the outbreaks.Emm (M protein) gene sequencing has changed serotyping, and new virulence genes and new virulence regulatory networks have been defined. The emm gene superfamily has expanded to include antiphagocytic molecules and immunoglobulin-binding proteins with common structural features.At least nine superantigens have been characterized, all of which may contribute to toxic streptococcal syndrome. An emerging theme is the dichotomy between skin and throat strains in their epidemiology and genetic makeup. Eleven adhesions have been reported, and surface plasmin-binding proteins have been defined.The strong resistance of the group A streptococcus to phagocytosis is related to factor H and fibrinogen binding by M protein and to disarming complement component C5a by the C5a peptidase. Molecular mimicry appears to play a role in autoimmune mechanisms involved in rheumatic fever, while nephritis strain-associated proteins may lead to immune-mediated acute glomerulonephritis. Vaccine strategies have focused on recombinant M protein and C5a peptidase vaccines, and mucosal vaccine delivery systems are under investigation.

Fibrin strands woven into the clot structure are cleaved into soluble fibrin fragments, and then removed by macrophages. The action of fibrinolysis also serves to restore blood flow into the area that had been sealed off, helping to promote further healing. Fibrinolysis is mediated by a proteolytic enzyme called plasmin. Plasminogen is the inactive precursor form of plasmin that is found in plasma. Plasmin takes on fibrinolytic properties after activation, digesting both fibrin and fibrinogen. Inhibitors act to control the process, serving as a check and balance system for fibrinolytic activities.

The presence of D-dimers in plasma or whole blood indicates that fibrin has been formed and degraded (fibrinolysis). Plasmin can also degrade intact fibrinogen, generating fibrinogen degradation products that are detected in fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products (FDP) assays. D-dimers and FDP can become elevated whenever the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems are activated. The presence of D-dimer confirms that both thrombin and plasmin have been generated since it can only be produced as the result of the plasmin degradation of fibrin. This makes the test for D-dimers more specific for fibrinolysis than the FDP test that also detects the products of the direct proteolysis of fibrinogen (fibrinogenolysis).The D-dimer test can be useful in the diagnosis of deep venous thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), two forms of venous thromboembolism (VTE). When the test is being used for this purpose, it is important that D-dimer levels are accurately measured and accurately reported because of the serious nature of this clinical decision. If the test is positive in a patient suspected to have DVT or PE, clinicians proceed with further diagnostic tests. If the test is negative, depending on the clinical situation and the sensitivity of the D-dimer assay, DVT or PE is considered unlikely and further diagnostic tests for DVT or PE might not be pursued. D-dimer is a sensitive, but not specific, diagnostic test for disseminated intravascular coagulation, and an indicator of increased risk of future myocardial infarction in patients evaluated for chest pain.

The liver is the site of production for the vast majority of our clotting factors. Therefore, impaired liver function could adversely affect these hemostatic proteins. Some early indicators of a potential liver problem include: An increase in factor VIII. It is not produced in the liver and will be present in elevated numbers as the body attempts to compensate. The PT is sensitive to liver function, so an unexpected, prolonged PT should be evaluated. A lack of fibrinogen is often indicative of severe liver disease. It is difficult to treat liver disease, so therapy typically centers around replacing the missing factors by way of administration of fresh frozen plasma.